History of Alcohol

It is believed that alcoholic beverages originated in Prehistory, specifically during the Neolithic period when agriculture appeared and pottery was invented.

Did you know that...

- Alcoholic beverages emerged by chance during the Neolithic period in prehistory? (1,2)

- The regulation of wine trade became more consistent starting in the Middle Ages? (3,4)

- Proletarian Russian women in the early 20th century would put distilled liquor on pacifiers to soothe their children? (5)

- In 18th century England, gin was known as the drink of choice for women? (6)

- Despite the long-standing criticism of alcohol abuse throughout human history, the concept of alcoholism only emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries? (7)

When it all began...

Alcoholic beverages are believed to have originated in Prehistory, specifically during the Neolithic period, when agriculture and pottery emerged. Through a process of natural fermentation that occurred about 10,000 years ago, humans began to consume alcohol and ascribe different meanings to its use. The Celts, Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, and Babylonians recorded in some form the consumption and production of alcoholic beverages. (1,2)

Noah's Drunkenness

In na episode from the Bible´s Old Testament (Genesis 9:21), Noah, after the flood, planted a vineyard and made wine. He consumed the beverage to the point of becoming drunk. The Bible states that Noah shouted, took off his clothes, and passed out. Moments later, his son Ham found him "uncovered in his nakedness." This is the first known account of drunkenness. The famous Renaissance painter Michelangelo (1475-1564) was inspired by this episode to create a beautiful fresco, titled after it, on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. Thus, it is evident that not only the use of alcohol but also drunkenness has been present among humanity since its beginnings.

Alcohol Throughout History

Greece and Rome

The soil and climate in Greece and Rome were especially rich for grape cultivation and wine production. The Greeks and Romans also knew the fermentation of honey and barley, but wine was the most widespread beverage in both empires, holding social, religious, and medicinal importance. (1,8)

In Ancient Greece, the playwright Euripides (484 BC - 406 BC) mentions in the Bacchae two deities of great significance to humans: Demeter, the goddess of agriculture who provides solid food for nourishment, and Dionysus, the God of wine and festivity (Bacchus for the Romans). Despite wine playing an active role in Greco-Roman social and religious celebrations, alcohol abuse and drunkenness were already severely censured by both peoples. (1)

Ancient Egypt

The Egyptians documented the stages of beer and wine production, manufacturing, and trade in papyrus. They also believed that fermented beverages eliminated germs and parasites and should be used as medicine, especially in the fight against parasites from the waters of the Nile. (1,2)

Middle Ages

The commercialization of wine and beer grew during this period, as did its regulation. Alcohol intoxication (drunkenness) ceased to be merely condemned by the church and began to be considered a sin by this institution. (4)

Modern Age

During the Renaissance, oversight of cabarets and taverns began, with operating hours established for these places. Cabarets and taverns were seen as venues where people could express themselves freely, and the use of alcohol was part of political debates that would later trigger the French Revolution. (4)

Contemporary Age

The late 18th century and the onset of the Industrial Revolution were accompanied by demographic and behavioral changes in Europe. It was during this period that excessive drinking began to be viewed by some as a disease or disorder (7). In the early to mid-19th century, some scholars began to discuss the differences between distilled and fermented beverages, especially wine. Consequently, finding no harmful germs in wine, French scientist Louis Pasteur declared in 1865 that "this is the most hygienic of beverages." (9)

During the 20th century, countries like France established the legal drinking age at 18, and in January 1920, the United States enacted Prohibition, which lasted almost 12 years. Prohibition banned the manufacture, sale, barter, transport, importation, exportation, distribution, possession, and consumption of alcoholic beverages and was considered by many a disaster for public health and the American economy, as it created an illegal market for alcohol and consequently increased violence and crime in the country. (11)

It was in 1952, with the first edition of the DSM-I (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders), that alcoholism began to be treated as a disease. (7, 10)

In 1967, the concept of alcoholism as a disease was incorporated by the World Health Organization into the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-8), following the 8th World Health Conference. In the ICD-8, problems related to alcohol use were placed within a broader category of personality disorders and neuroses. These issues were divided into three categories: dependence, episodes of excessive drinking (abuse), and habitual excessive drinking. Alcohol dependence was characterized by compulsive use of alcoholic beverages and the manifestation of withdrawal symptoms after cessation of alcohol use. (14)

In modern times, starting in January 2022, the ICD-11 came into effect, bringing important updates to the general guidelines of the document, including specific updates on alcohol use disorders (15), which are:

- Greater specification of different patterns of harmful alcohol consumption, which can be continuous, episodic, and recurrent;

- A new diagnostic subcategory for single episodes of harmful consumption;

- The introduction of harmful alcohol consumption as a life risk factor;

In addition to other more technical nuances regarding the categorization of certain disorders, such as neurocognitive disorders related to alcohol use (15).

References:

1.Viala-Artigues, J. & Mechetti,C. (2003). Histoire de l´alcool archéologie partie 1.
2. McGovern, Patrick E. The Origins and Ancient History of Wine. (http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/exhibits/online_exhibits/wine/wineintro.html).
3. Liappas,J.A., Lascaratos, J., Fafouti, S., Christodoulou, G.N., (2003). Alexander the Great´s relationship with alcohol. Addiction. 98. 561-567.
4. Viala-Artigues, J. & Mechetti,C. (2003). Histoire de l´alcool archéologie partie 2.
5. Phillips, L. (1999). In defense of their families: Working-Class Women, Alcohol, and Politics in Revolutionary Russia. Journal of Women´s History. Vol. 11. 97-120.
6. Warner,J. & Ivis, F. (2000). Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto. Eighteen-Century Life. 24. 85-105
7. Jerome, H.J. (1993). The concept of dependence: Historical Reflections. Alcohol Health and Research World. 17. 188-190.
8. Purcell, N. (2003). Diet, Community, And History At Rome. American Journal of Philology. 124. 329-358
(http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/american_journal_of_philology/)
9. Viala-Artigues, J. & Mechetti,C. (2003). Histoire de l´alcool les temps modernes partie 1
10. Viala-Artigues, J. & Mechetti,C. (2003). Histoire de l´alcool les temps modernes partie 2
11. History of Alcohol. Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau. US Department of Treasure
12.Lexicon of alcohol and drug terms – Organização Mundial de Saúde (OMS), 1994.
13.The natural history of alcoholism - George E. Vaillant. Harvard University Press, 1983.
14. Diagnostic Criteria for Alcohol Abuse and Dependence – National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) - Alcohol Alert, No 30, 1995 (http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa30.htm)

15. Saunders JB, Degenhardt L, Reed GM, Poznyak V. Alcohol Use Disorders in ICD‐11: Past, Present, and Future. Alcohol Clin Exp Res [Internet]. 2019 Aug 23 [cited 2020 Jun 23];43(8):1617–31. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/acer.14128

History of Alcohol Policies in Brazil

Brazil is engaged in combating harmful alcohol consumption. Learn about our national policy.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), having a written and specific national alcohol policy is the first sign of a country's commitment to combating the harmful use of this substance. Although a specific national alcohol policy only emerged in 2007 (Decree No. 6,117), general drug policies and laws have existed in Brazil for a long time. This material was developed by CISA with the goal of clarifying the long history of preparation and discussion on the topic.

The first mentions of substance regulation were already included in the Penal Code of the Empire of Brazil in 1851, although at the time it only covered the use and sale of medicines. The first prohibition appeared in the Republican Code of 1890, which imposed fines on anyone who sold or administered poisonous substances without a prescription, though it did not specify which substances. Brazil began enacting more specific drug laws in 1924 (Decree No. 4,294), in response to strong international pressure to control substance use. This included the addition of imprisonment penalties for those who sold opium or cocaine derivatives in the Penal Code. Within this context, Brazil joined the so-called “war on drugs” in 1971, with the creation of Law No. 5,726, in line with United Nations international conventions, aimed at repressing drug trafficking. In 1976, Law No. 6,368 expanded actions to include preventive strategies and support for drug addicts (1). Brazil’s current Constitution (1988) emphasized health as an essential condition for a dignified life, making it a fundamental right. This principle influenced the development of later drug policies.

In 2003, an interministerial technical group was created within the Ministry of Health, which in 2005 led to the creation of a Special Chamber on Alcohol Public Policy to increase public participation in the discussion. “This process enabled Brazil to develop a realistic policy, free from fundamentalist biases or trivialization of alcohol use, and consistently supported by epidemiological data, scientific advances, and respect for the country’s socio-political moment. The alcohol policy reflects society’s concern regarding the increasingly early use of this substance, as well as its negative impact on health and safety,” according to a publication from the National Secretariat for Drug Policies (2).

The issue of alcohol consumption was also addressed in the creation of the Fan Statute in 2003 (Law No. 10,671). Although it does not directly address alcoholic beverages, Article 13 establishes conditions for access and permanence in sports venues: “not to carry objects, drinks, or substances that are prohibited or likely to incite or enable acts of violence,” which potentially includes alcoholic beverages. While the law does not explicitly prohibit the sale, possession, or consumption of alcohol in stadiums, the express prohibition in Brazilian stadiums resulted from a memorandum of understanding between the Brazilian Football Confederation (CBF) and the National Council of State Prosecutors General.

In 2005, Brazil hosted the 1st Pan-American Conference on Public Policies on Alcohol, supported by the Pan American Health Organization. This led to the development of intercontinental policies and a recommendation for countries in the Americas to establish strategies and programs aimed at preventing and reducing harm associated with harmful alcohol consumption. Important changes followed, culminating in 2006 with the approval of Law No. 11,343, which “establishes the National System of Public Policies on Drugs (Sisnad); prescribes measures for prevention of misuse, treatment and social reintegration of users and dependents; sets rules for the repression of unauthorized production and illicit trafficking of drugs; defines crimes and other provisions.”

As a result of these discussions, in May 2007 Brazil adopted its National Alcohol Policy, which included intersectoral and comprehensive actions to reduce social, health, and life harms caused by alcohol consumption, as well as violence and crime associated with harmful use of alcoholic beverages. Up to that point, alcohol was included under general drug policies. However, because it is a legal substance with regulated commerce, it became necessary to create a specific policy distinct from those targeting illicit substances. The policy’s guidelines include:

• Diagnosis of alcohol consumption in Brazil;
• Treatment and social reintegration of alcohol users and addicts;
• Public awareness campaigns on the consequences of misuse and abuse of alcohol;
• Reducing alcohol demand among vulnerable populations;
• Public safety;
• Alcohol and traffic;
• Training professionals and multipliers of information on health, education, labor, and public safety;
• Partnerships with municipalities to encourage local-level actions; and
• Alcohol advertising (2).

Subsequent complementary laws were created, particularly regarding traffic safety, due to the high rates of morbidity and mortality from drinking and driving. In 2008, Brazil amended the Brazilian Traffic Code through Law No. 11,705 (commonly known as the “Dry Law”), imposing stricter penalties on drivers caught under the influence of alcohol. Any detectable amount of alcohol became grounds for administrative penalties such as fines, vehicle seizure, and a 12-month suspension of the driver's license. Those with a blood alcohol concentration of 0.6 g/L or higher could also face criminal penalties (2). Additionally, the law prohibited the sale and serving of alcoholic beverages for on-site consumption along federal highways and adjacent areas with access to highways (excluding urban areas). In 2012, the Dry Law became stricter, expanding the types of evidence that could be used to prove drunk driving. On December 19, 2017, Law No. 13,546 was enacted, introducing harsher penalties for drivers who committed involuntary manslaughter or caused serious or very serious bodily harm under the influence of alcohol or other psychoactive substances that cause dependence.

In 2009, the federal government launched the Emergency Plan to Expand Access to Treatment and Prevention of Alcohol and Other Drugs, incorporating such services into Brazil’s Unified Health System (SUS). Support was further expanded by Ordinance 3088 (December 23, 2011), which enabled access to the psychosocial care network for users of alcohol and other drugs.

On March 17, 2015, Law No. 13,106/2015 was enacted, making it a crime to offer alcoholic beverages to minors, whereas previously it was only considered a misdemeanor.

As we have seen, the development of Brazil’s national alcohol policy followed a complex and intense trajectory and has led to important progress in preventing harmful use and supporting individuals with alcohol dependence, as well as in making laws more appropriate and specific. The current model is based on educational measures to warn about the effects of drug use and on community services for recovery and social reintegration of users. Finally, Brazil has committed to the WHO’s voluntary goal of reducing harmful alcohol consumption by 10% by 2025, and this set of measures aims to help the country meet that target.

References:

(1) Santos JAT, Oliveira MLF. Políticas públicas sobre álcool e outras drogas: breve resgate histórico. J Nurs Health, Pelotas (RS) 2012 jan/jun;1(2):82-93.
(2) Paulina do Carmo Arruda Vieira Duarte, Carla Dalbo